Discourse Analysis Politeness In Ionescos The Lesson English Language Essay

Discourse Analysis Politeness In Ionescos The Lesson English Language Essay This article is concentrating on the linguistic strategies of politeness presented in drama text. The text chosen for analysis is Ionescos The Lesson, a play which would virtually demand a politeness analysis. the discourse model which has been selected for the analysis is one which should enable me to explore ,in a systematic way, the relation between language use and the social relation of the speakers. The present study will examine literary text from a discourse oriented perspective because the subject of the analysis is the drama dialogue. The choice of the dialogues is further justified when one notice that the drama dialogue selected for analysis represents a particular kind of discourse situation ;a lesson. a discourse stylistic analysis should examine the interaction between the fictional characters in the play as well as encompassing the interaction between writer/playwright and reader /audience. This echoes the embedded nature of drama discourse. Generally a discourse styl istic analysis should highlight the role of the writer and reader as conversationalists in realtime speech events, pointing particularly the formers ability to exploit the conversations of language use for stylistic effect and latters ability to recognize these exploitations and motivations behind it. Politeness and Interactions Much of what we say and a greater deal of what we communicate is determined by our social relationships. A linguistic interaction is necessarily a social interaction. In order to make sense of what is said in an interaction we have to look at various factors which relate to social distance and closeness. Some of these factors are external ,they involve the relative status of the participants ,based on social values, such as age and power. However here are also internal factors such as amount of imposition and degree of friendliness. It might accord with what Foucault talked about power and relation. He said that power is not something to be seized it is exercised from different points of an interplay in a mobile non-egalitarian relation. Both types of factors have an influence over not only what we say but on how we are interpreted. In order to understand the meaning of politeness in an interaction we need the concept of face. As a technical term, face means the public self-image of a person .it refers to emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects the others to recognize it .politeness in an interaction can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another persons face. Within their everyday social infraction people generally behave as if their expectation concerning their public self-image, or their face wants, will be respected. If a speaker say something that represents a threat to another individuals expectations regarding self-image, it is described as a face threatening act ..Alternatively given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to anothers face, the speaker can say something to lesson the possible threat. This is called a face saving act. We also have negative and positive face. a persons negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action ,and not to be imposed on by others. The word negative here doesnt mean bad it s just the opposite pole of positive. a persons p ositive face is the need to be accepted ,even liked ,by others ,to be treated as the member of the same group, and to know that his and her wants are shared by the others. In short negative face is the need to be independent and positive face is the need to be connected. There are also various forms of face threatening act. Depending on the social relationship of the speakers and the amount of imposition which the face threatening act entails. For example if you say closed the door it is a face threatening act that has been done baldly, without redress. In fact a bald non redressive act is one that adheres to four conversational maxim introduced by a philosopher called Grice. It is maximally efficient in so far as it is non-spurious (quality maxim), it does not say more or less than is required ( quantity),it is relevant(relation) and it avoids ambiguity and obscurity (manner). There are a number of alternatives to perform face threatening act. If you say your request not directly and the other partner can also behave as if the statement has not been heard, this is technically described as being off record. In general ,linguistic realization of off-record strategies include metaphor and irony, rhetorical questions ,understatement ,tautologies and all kinds of indirect hints .but if you directly address the other partner as a means of expressing your need like the example above this is described as being on-record .in the face saving act we have positive politeness and negative politeness. Positive politeness is like being on-record more risky. This can be used in more friendly and close relations. In negative politeness the request is most typically performed via a question like may I ask you †¦.? Or could you lend me your pen?.the tendency to use positive politeness forms ,emphasizing closeness between speaker and hearer ,can be seen as solidarity strategy. Such a strategy will include personal information, use of nicknames even use of abusive terms. The tendency to use negative politeness forms, emphasizing the hearers right to freedom, can be seen as a deference strategy. This strategy can be performed through using hedges, indicating deference, minimizing the imposition, indicating pessimism, apologizing, impersonalizing , etc†¦ The Analysis In The Lesson the central event is a private lesson involving an ageing professor and an eighteen year old pupil. The specific aim of the lesson is never made clear ;the pupil, it seems ,wishes to undertake all the doctorate ,yet the professor directs most of his pedagogical energy toward ridiculously elementary arithmetic .at the start of the play the professor is nervous and difficult while the pupil is vivacious and dynamic .the professor gradually loses his timidity ,becoming increasingly domineering and aggressive, whereas the pupil grows more and more passive. finally in the storm of verbal abuse the professor murders the pupil with what can only be described as an imaginary knife. The play concludes with the revelation that not only is this the professors fortieth victim of the play but also he had planned subsequent lesson of a similar nature. The professors transition from diffidence to dominance, and the pupils decline into passivity is a gradual and almost imperceptible pr ocess. the shift in the interactive roles of the two characters is reflected by subtle changes in their linguistic behavior. To account for this three short extracts have been taken from key stages in the play development. The opening encounter between the professor and the pupil; Professor; Good morning, good morning †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.you are†¦..err†¦..I suppose you are really†¦.err†¦.the new pupil? (The pupil turns round briskly and easily, very much the young lady; she gets up and goes toward the professor ,holding out her hand) Pupil; yes ,sir. Good morning, sir. You see I came at the right time . i didnt want to be late. Professor Good .yes , thats very good. Thank you. But you shouldnt have hurried too much ,you know dont know quite how to apologize to you for having you kept waiting†¦.. I was just finishing†¦.you understand ,I was just†¦err†¦..i do beg your pardon †¦..i hope you will forgive me†¦ Pupil; oh, but you mustnt sir its perfectly all right, sir. Professor; my apologies†¦.. the professors first remarks are clearly phatic.it is noticeable that he repeats the phrase good morning, possibly this repetition revealing some anxiety in the early stage of the encounter. Then the professor goes on to make the first threatening act of the interaction he requires information concerning the identity of his interlocutor..first he begins with a declarative sentence which will function as a request for confirmation from the pupil .this is followed by a hedging particle. In addition to the particle err hedges are achieved by the phrases I suppose and really .the use of I suppose makes more tentative assumption in the professors request, while really functions to weaken the force of the request. Actually the professors opening gambit is a good example of negative politeness phenomena. The pupils use of the honorific sir communicates deference, her linguistic strategy conveys confidence and self- determination. She is eager to play merit for her punctuality, not letting this possible feature of her behavior escape her interlocutor. She also response to the professors earlier phatic initiation in a calm and equanimous. The pupils non verbal behavior here is also significant and displays considerable confidence on her part. The professors second speech begins with some positive feedback concerning the pupils punctuality, but then he moves into an extraordinary sequence of negative politeness. It should be noted here that the professor has kept the pupil waiting for no more that a few seconds. It is completely clear that he considers himself to have made some immense imposition on her interlocutor. He declares his inability to apologies this first indicates his deference .secondly ,he draws on the apologize strategy , or rather claims his inability to apologize. He supplements this by utilizing a specific sub strategy of apologize; he admits the impingement , by explicitly referring to the imposition caused to the addressee. After some hesitation he proceeds with more negative politeness, he attempts to state the overwhelming reasons which lead him to perform the face threatening act. Then after this and he attempts a more hedge version of the same sub strategy, with a complete lack of success. Then he moves to beg forgiveness strategy, which also incorporates the pessimistic strategy in its use of I hope. This elaborate display of politeness strategy is in reality a relatively trivial imposition the professor minimally impinged on the negative face of the addressee ,on the other hand he persist with a gratuitous build up of repair strategy ,there is in fact a kind of pragmatic mismatch here .so this shows that the politeness strategies he uses are vastly out of proportion to the actual imposition he makes on the hearer. The pupils injection is well timed, what is more significant is that the pupil grants the forgiveness requested by the professor with her remark its perfectly all right sir .indeed on the basis of this exchange ,it seems as if it is the pupil not the professor who is more powerful of the interaction. The pupils persistent use of the honorific sir is incongruous. The second extract is taken from the middle of the play; Professor; what is four? Greater or smaller that three? Pupil; smaller †¦.. no greater. Professor; excellent answer. How many units are missing between three and four? †¦.. or between four and three if youd rather? Pupil; there arent any units sir, between three and four. Four comes immediately after three; there is nothing at all between three and four! Professor; I cant have made myself understood properly .its doubtless my own fault .i havent been clear enough. Pupil ; oh no sir the fault is entirely mine . Professor; listen .here are three matches .and here is another one . that makes four. Now watch carefully†¦. In this conversation the characters are competing with one another in their use of negative politeness strategies .the trade in deference phenomena would suggest that a more symmetrical power relation exists between the two characters at this point in the play .these face threatening act ,which impose upon the negative face of the addressee by demanding a particular service ,have been done baldly. They are impolite , in fact these bald non repressive face threatening act are the first suggestion that the professor is becoming not only more powerful but less concerned with being polite to his interlocutor.. it is also noticeable that nowhere in this extract the professor used his hedging particle err which was used so frequently in the first conversation..There is generally a change in professors linguistic behavior..There are signs that the professor is beginning to assume a position of high relative power. The third extract is taken from near the end of the play .it occurs shortly before the professor murders the pupil with the invisible knife. This act can be considered the ultimate face threatening act. Professor; every language mademoiselle- note this carefully and remember it till the day you die Pupil; oh !yes sir till the day I die †¦. Yes sir †¦ Professor ; †¦ and again , this is another fundamental principle , every language is in fact only a manner of speaking , which inevitably implies that it is a made up of sounds , or †¦ Pupil; phonemes †¦. Professor; I was just about to say so . Dont show off , airing your knowledge !youd better just listen . Pupil ; very well sir .yes sir . Professor; sounds mademoiselle, should be caught in flight by their wings so that they do not fall on deaf ears..consequently when you have made up your mind to articulate ,you are recommended , in so far as possible ,to stretch your neck and your chin well up , and stand righty on the tips of your toes ,look now ,like this ,you see †¦.. Pupil; yes, sir. Professor; be quite. dont interrupt †¦. the conversation here has changed to an extended nonsensical monologue from the professor .considering the professors opening speech ,which is the beginning of a disoriented proclamation of language .it is not only a bald ,non-repressive face threatening demanding careful attention from the pupil but there is a sinister threatening quality to this face threatening act. .the pupils reaction on the other hand is a display of genuine deference. Here the use of the honorific sir is not incongruous but it is a term of address used by an inferior to a superior .when the pupil is eager to participate in the interaction this draws admonition from the professor in the form of another threatening ,bald, non -redressive face threatening act. At last the professor gives three unmitigated command which illustrate how the professors politeness strategies have completely vanished . it is also significant that one of these face threatening acts is intended to restrict the physical movement of the addressee .thus the pupil who was able to move confidently in the first extract ,is now confined powerless to her chair. In three passages from the lesson , when compared to one another ,show a marked reversal in the interactive relation of the two characters ,during the course of the play the reversal is gradually achieved and it is difficult to isolate a specific point at which a character gains or loses power .one thing that is clear is that the transition in interactive roles is signaled by the subtle variations in the linguistic strategies which these characters use to one another .

Guillermo Financial Analysis Essay

Making a sound financial decision is a vital component of the success of a business. The business must conduct market research, description of products, services and marketing strategies, and setting principles for the business’s success. Expenses should be noted prior to writing a financial plan. The goal of a business is to operate on a predefined budget. Ensure there are no undefined or hidden cost that could cause problems later. The business plan helps the business to make day-to-day decisions on its operations. Teamâ€Å"D† will analysis Guillermo’s alternatives and make a recommendation on which alternative will enhance the businesses financial decision. Maintain Current Operational Levels One option available to Guillermo is to make no adjustments to the company’s current operations. This option supports the top concerns of acquisition from a larger firm and spending a large amount of cash on high-tech equipment investments, it does not solve the problem of a shrinking profit margin because of a rise in labor costs. Supporting the option to maintain current operations overlooks potential opportunities that are identified to allow the company to move away from its primary manufacturing role and act as a distributor for the Norwegian competitor. According to the assets, liabilities, and equity information provided by the University of Phoenix, sales growth is slowing to 1% from previous periods. These low profit margins willnot sustain Guillermo in the long-term;they will not improve if there is not a choicemade to adjust to the financial situation. Maintaining current operations does not address the shrinking profit margins. To continue to move Guillermo furniture in a positive direction, Mr. Navallez needs to apply some options already available and within the current operating structure. One option available to Guillermo is expanding the patented flame retardant process already in use within the manufacturing process, by applying a similar coating. This option requires no additional investment because Guillermo owns the equipment as part of the existing manufacturing process. The new coating adds value to the furniture, and makes it more appealing to consumers (University of Phoenix, 2009). The net present value of the project must be calculated in order todetermine ifthis is a strong option. For planning and budgeting purposes, a three-year life cycle is assumed for the coating project with an initial investment cost of $222,705 that is absorbed during the first year of the project. This produces a projected cash flow of $1,733,562, leaving Guillermo with a net income profit of $42,557. Net present value for the three-year project calculates to $197,171. Another option available and immediately implemented is to reduce inventory by quickly turning over products, thus increasing the cash flow. Planning an accurate budget supports the inventory overhead by reducing costs associated with maintaining inventory. The flex budget data shows that Guillermo furniture underestimated June operating expenses by $101,740. If these costs estimates were more closely tied to production costs, a substantial amount of cash would have been available to reinvest in other areas of the business. Closely managing this inventory will make more cash available for expansion in other areas of the company. Last year Guillermo experienced a $3,671 increase in its year-end inventory. Keeping a large amount of inventory on hand ties up cash, which otherwise can be investedin other areas of the business. Guillermo’s option to hold fast and maintain current course is setting the conditions for failure. However, to maintain its current course and improve its financial standing, Mr. Navallez can leverage small opportunities that maximize the financial condition by leveraging the existing patent and reducing inventory. High Tech Business Upgrade Guillermo’s high tech alternative is based off a process currently being used by one of the Norwegian competitors. It will allow the business to increase productivity but will also require a more skilled worker to operate the machinery. In choosing this alternative it predicts that sales will increase by 50% bringing in an increased revenue stream (University of Phoenix, 2009). In assessing this alternative looking at the net present value of future cash flows will help make this decision an easier one by noting the value it brings to the organization. Assuming that Guillermo expects to see a return on the investment within three years, this time period will be used in calculating the NPV. Using the three year time period with an interest rate of 7. 5% and a growth rate of sales at 1. 0403% the NPV can be calculated at $617,178. The firm’s predictions on projected sales has not been the most accurate when looking at historical information. Conducting a sensitivity analysis will further help to determine the value of this alternative using the net income as the adjusted variable. Assuming there will be a best, worst, and most likely outcome to future sales revenue, the projected sales number of $195,564 will act as the most likely outcome. By increasing this number by 10% and decreasing it by 10%, the best case and worst case scenarios can also be calculated respectively. These numbers will show how sensitive the NPV calculations are to the changes in net income. Under the best circumstances high tech alternative yields a net income of $215. 120 while the worst yields $176,008. These numbers translate into net present values of $617,486 under the best circumstances and $616,870 under the worse circumstances. If Guillermo decides to use the alternative funding for the expensive machinery becomes an issue. There are three main ways in which to fund the purchase of this equipment and the additional cost of employee labor. The additional costs can be self-funded if the available cash is available. This will increase the equity in the firm but this will also reduce the leverage the company currently enjoys. The company’s equity can be used to purchase the equipment. This will have the same effect as if Guillermo used personal funds since he is the sole owner of the furniture company. The equipment can be financed through secured debt financing which will increase leverage as well as provide additional tax benefits to the organization. And lastly, Guillermo can lease the equipment. Each of these alternatives provides unique tax benefits as well as pros and cons specific to each of these options. As Guillermo considers this alternative in comparison to other options the cost of maintenance, salvage costs, depreciation costs, and increased labor costs should be factored. These all impact the overall capital budgeting decision faced by Guillermo Furniture. Distribution/Broker Opportunities Guillermo’s second alternative is to become a broker for one of the Norwegian competitors. The company has been looking for channels to distribute in North America as it has chosen not to operate furniture outlets but instead to rely solely on chain distribution (University of Phoenix, 2009). Guillermo’s existing business relationships afford him the opportunity to coordinate a distributor network that generates a new form of revenue for the company. This new stream of income can help offset some of the financial challenges that have emerged as a result of a competitive furniture market and increasing costs. In addition to becoming a broker, Guillermo can also continue offering some of his high end custom products. To determine if becoming a broker is the best option, Guillermo will evaluate the NPV and WACC for the proposed project. To calculate the NPV, Guillermo must consider the investment time period and the discount rate. In this case, Guillermo will review a period of 20 years. When calculating, the need to remove the income tax from the net profit and then re-add the depreciation back in. Next, consider the value of the company’s equipment. For the purpose of this paper, it will be assumed at $100,000,000 with a straight-lined depreciation of $100,000 yearly, over a 10 year period. Once the ten years is complete, the before tax income will increase for the broker option by $100,000. The cash flow will be reduced by 42% since Guillermo will have to pay the taxes on the increase. Since the building will be completely depreciated after 17 years, the net income before taxes will be $50,000. The net present value for the broker option over the 20 year period at 10% will be $4,125,109. 02.

Difference Between Civil and Criminal Law

This assignment will consider the differences in Civil and Criminal law. It will explain the roles of solicitors, Barristers, Judges and Magistrates. It will also critically look at the features of the European Court of Human Rights 4Civil law is a private law. it settles matters between two individuals and organisations. It still has the roman standard in many countries because it was originated from the Roman law. The end result is mostly damages in civil law. Example of civil cases includes Donoghue v Stevenson [1993] where Donoghue sued Stevenson for damages of ? 00 for drinking contaminated ginger beer which had negative effect on his health, Millar v Taylor (17690) is another example of civil case 5Criminal law considers crimes committed against the crown ( R ). [6]  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Government identifies and criminalises behaviour that is considered wrong, damaging to individuals through criminal law† Jacqueline Martin and Chris Turner define crime as  [7]  a conduct forbidd en by the state. when a conduct is regarded by the state as being criminal, there is always a punishment attached to it†. i. e. murder and theft.Example of criminal case includes R v Wilson (1994) and R v Brown (1991) where R stands for the Crown or the State. Criminal law was made to protect organisations, individuals, the society and their properties. They are also made to punish offenders. The aim of sentencing offenders also include reparation, incapacitation, deterrence and reformation Read more: Differences between civil and criminal | Law Teacher http://www. lawteacher. net/criminal-law/essays/differences-between-civil-and-criminal-law-essay. php#ixzz2RCimULfN Follow us: @lawteachernet on Twitter | LawTeacherNet on Facebook DifferencesCriminal law is drafted by the government. It is made by the crown ( R ) and passed by Parliament before it goes to the monarch for â€Å"rubber-stumping† as law. (This process is known as ‘Royal Assent’). Offenders are prosecuted by the Crown when they commit crimes against citizens. It is the duty of the police to enforce the law. 8Civil law applies to the principals of common law but in civil actions unlike criminal proceedings, the Crown takes no sides. The crown supplies the court, the judge and if necessary the enforcement of the judge’s rulings. Punishment 9Criminal law punishes guilty defendant by either incarceration in a jailed.There are also fine paid to the government in exceptional cases. Community service could be the punishment on offenders depending on the type of crime committed. Contrary to criminal law, defendant in civil law is not imprisoned when found liable but reimburse the claimant for losses by the defendants act. Burden of proof In criminal law, one can never be guilty without â€Å"proven 99 percent guilty beyond reasonable doubt â€Å"as per Lord Denning. When one feels that the crime committed is done due to his or her insanity, then the burden lies on the de fendant to prove it.The Crown has the right to punish criminal offenders because all crimes are against the state. For example, if one commits the crime of burglary by breaking into a house and steal, the state will prosecute the offender when even the victim brings private proceedings against the burglar. Read more: Differences between civil and criminal | Law Teacher http://www. lawteacher. net/criminal-law/essays/differences-between-civil-and-criminal-law-essay. php#ixzz2RCicKzlV Follow us: @lawteachernet on Twitter | LawTeacherNet on Facebook

Argumentattive Essay on Benefits of Being Donor Country in Terms of Foreign Aid

Benefits of Being Donor Country With the way foreign aid for poor countries is becoming more and more popular, you may ask why do donor countries render assistance? Are the reasons related only to the humanitarian motives? Or maybe there are certain benefits for â€Å"the generous† too? Obviously there are. There is a whole bunch of economical reasons that are hard to understand for a non-professional. The ones I want to talk about are in the political field. By choosing the recipient of the aid, the donor country is picking governments that will be backing up its policies in the face of the rest of the world. It is logical that oppositionists will never get any help. For example, most regions of the Middle East can be definitely qualified as less developed. But if you analyze what countries are getting financial aid from America, for instance, those would be the ones that the US has concern for. Of course, those who do not support American external policy will not get any help from this wealthy nation. They might be getting it from the countries who oppose United States on the world arena, but whether they do is a totally different question. With the outer inflow in their economy, less developed countries get a huge cultural inflow from their donors. It is very noticeable in the French relations with the country’s former African colonies, where the French culture and language are actively promoted. As we can see, donor help is not being given away for free. There is a great political implication in it. There is no doubt that financial assistance is important for its recipients, but the benefits donor countries get from providing it can be incommensurably bigger in the context of the world policy.